Tales of the Covenanters

[marysharpwitted]

Tales of the Covenanters by Robert Pollok
MaryAnn Sharples
San Jose State University
April 24, 2010

Introduction

The following study explores Tales of the Covenanters, a collection of stories written by Robert Pollok. The book is believed to be an original 1850 publication by Oliphant Anderson & Ferrier (Edinburgh and London). It is one of the several publications printed during the last half of the 19th Century. The subject matter of the book, the Covenanters, played a great part in the Reformation Church of Scotland. The stories included within Tales of the Covenanters commemorate the struggles the Covenanters experienced in 17th Century Scotland as they strived to establish an official state Presbyterian Church in Scotland.

Historical Context

The Scottish monarchy has the tradition and reputation of being anything but stable, such a statement is certainly true when considering the life and reign of Mary, Queen of Scots. Mary succeeded the Scottish throne in 1542, when she was not even a week old; her father, James V, died due to wounds received during battle with England's Henry VIII. Mary's early life was spent being transported from castle to castle, fortress to fortress in order to secure her safety. Henry VIII angered over the dismissal of a treaty of marriage which would betroth the infant Mary to his son, Edward responded by invading Scotland. His men were ordered to ravage, burn, and kill until Scotland crumbled and relented to his desire. Such "rough wooing", as it came to be called did little to endear Scotland; the Regent, Cardinal Beaton; and the queen mother, Marie de Guise, to Henry's cause. In fact, it drove Marie de Guise closer to Scotland's traditional ally, France. When Henry VIII died in 1547, the Duke of Somerset, England's Lord Protector for young Edward VI, continued the "rough wooing" campaign. In February 1547 the Scottish Parliament agreed to betroth young Mary to the young Dauphin of France. As part of the treaty Mary was moved to Paris where she was reared and educated in Henri II's court. In return France assisted Scotland by sending troops to help drive the English from Scottish lands. For the first time in her life, young Mary was able to live in peace. She was afforded every luxury at the French court; she learned Spanish, Italian, the classics, drawing, dancing, singing, and playing the lute and soon she was very proficient in French. Her betrothed, Francois, was a year younger than her and became her playfellow. Francois and Mary were married on April 24, 1558. The Dauphin succeeded his father to the French throne in July 1559, but his reign as Francois II and his marriage to Mary were short lived. Francois died on December 5, 1560. Mary found herself unwelcomed at the French court, especially by her mother-in-law, Catherine de' Medici. When Mary returned to Scotland in 1561 to assume her throne, she arrived to a Scotland much different to the one she had left it in 1548.

Marie de Guise, the queen mother, assumed the mantle of queen regent at Mary's directive in 1554. Marie de Guise found she received the respect and acceptance among the Scottish political community. This was partly due to her views on religion. She was "neither zealot nor persecutor, and she…did everything she could to conciliate the conflicting interest of the people of Scotland" (Mangusson, p 334-335). Much like the rest of Europe, the doctrines and principles of Protestantism was spreading and gaining popularity in Scotland. For unknown reasons when Elizabeth Tudor succeeded the English throne as Elizabeth I, Marie reversed her stance on Protestantism. She commanded all Protestant priests "to present themselves before her" (p. 336) and when none came "all were outlawed" (p. 336).

On May 11, 1559 John Knox delivered a sermon that was so aggressively opposed the idolatry, the Perth congregation was inspired to such violent behavior that it sacked the local church and monastery and destroyed ornaments and furnishings. This was the onset to civil war that had been threatening for years and in response the queen regent raised and army and marched it to Perth, but Protestant supporters were able to negotiate and sign an armistice treaty on May 29, 1559. Yet, on May 31, 1559 the Lords of the Congregation of Christ (several Protestant Scottish nobles, which included Mary's half-brother James Stewart) signed the Second Band of the Congregation and raised an "Army of the Congregation of Christ" and occupied Perth and Stirling. The queen regent and her army fell back to Edinburgh, but when word came that the army was marching towards Edinburgh the queen regent and her army left for Dunbar. The Protestant army took Edinburgh and set up a Great Council in the name of their absent queen (Mary) and deposed the queen regent.

In February 1560 the Lords of the Congregation signed a treaty with Elizabeth I who agreed to lend the Protestant rebels assistance in battling the queen regent's French reinforcements. The fighting between the English and French forces continued throughout the spring. On June 11, 1560 the queen regent died after a long and painful battle with dropsy. In July 1560 the English and the French signed the Treaty of Edinburgh which provided for the removal of French and English troops from Scotland. France also recognized Elizabeth's claim to the English throne. The traditional alliance between Scotland and France had come to an end and the Reformation in Scotland had begun.

The Lords of Congregation party became the acting provisional government. In August 1560, the Reformation Parliament passed a number of acts in the name of the queen, though they did not have the authority.

It authorized a new Scots Confession of Faith--twenty-five articles, written quickly and vigorously in the vernacular by John Knox and five others, the 'six Johns' (Knox, Willcock, Winram, Spottiswoode, Row, and Douglas). It abolished the Pope's authority in Scotland and forbade the celebration of the Latin Mass, on pain of death for the third offence. (p. 338).

The Reformation, however, would continue to go through numerous evolutions over the next 130 years.

When Mary returned to Scotland, she wisely accepted counsel offered to her by her half-brother, the now Lord James Steward, "above all things, madame, for the love of God, do not press matters of religion, not for any man's advice on earth" (p. 344). Mary, indeed, was willing to accept the Protestant Church "so long as she was allowed to attend Catholic services in private" (p. 345). She proclaimed to her people that she wished for a bit of tolerance for herself and her servants and while she did not ratify the 1560 Reformation Acts, she did not revoke them either. She continued practicing Catholicism in practice, but she upheld the trying and jailing of several Catholic priests who had publically conducted Mass. With such a line of policy she quickly gathered the support of many of the Protestant nobles, but her most vehement opposition came in the form of John Knox. He didn't just oppose her continued practice of Catholicism, but her entire courtly lifestyle. Mary and Knox engaged in numerous debates regarding religion and culture, but neither gained any ground on each other.

Through a series of political blunders, completely unrelated to religion, Mary found herself forced to abdicate her throne in 1569 in favor of her 10-month old son, James, who would become James VI. She fled to England, hoping to gain the protection and support of her cousin, Elizabeth I. She received neither. Mary lived another 18 years imprisoned in England. She was convicted of conspiracy to assassinate Elizabeth and executed on February 8, 1587. Her son, James VI would inherit the challenge of dealing with the ever increasing demands to evolve the Church of Scotland into a presbytery model.

During the regent-period of James' reign, the General Assembly of the Kirk (church), led by Andrew Melville fashioned and approved the Second Book of Discipline of 1578. Prior to this Assembly, Morton, the acting Regent, "had set up a quasi-episocpal system, whereby bishops were nominated by the crown, but 'chapters' of ministers could veto the nominations" (p. 388). The Second Book of Discipline, however, discarded that system of

royal supremacy and insisted on the political autonomy of the General Assembly of the Kirk. Kirk and state were to form 'Two Kingdoms'; but whereas there should be no interference in the Kirk's affairs by the secular authority, ministers should be able to 'teach the magistrate his duty'. In effect, the Kirk claimed to be empowered to direct the secular head of state in accordance with the will of God (p. 388).

James believed in and was a proponent of the divine rights of kings. He wished to be the "universal king", which meant that he, as the king, was subject and subordinate to no one and no other organization--especially not to the Church. In 1584 a parliament was summoned and during that session a number of acts were passed. They came to be known as the "Black Acts", passed to divert radical Presbyterianism. The king was declared the head of the Church and state, the parliament "confirmed the authority of bishops within the Kirk against that of 'pretended presbyteries', and issued dire warnings against criticism of the king's person, his parents or his predecessors" (p. 389). A Roman Catholic uprising was always a strong threat so James could not afford to alienate the ultra-Protestant Presbyterians like Melville, so in 1592 parliament passed what came to be called the "Golden Act". It restored many of the former privileges of Church; but in order to take ensure that the General Assemblies were not overrun with Melville's strongest supporters, the time and location of the General Assembly had to be approved by the king and parliament.

The root of most of the confrontations between James and the Kirk could be summarized briefly as neither side willing the Church to be a presbytery or episcopal. James could not reconcile a presbytery with the presence of a ruling king. A king asserted his presence in the Church as its head by awarding Church offices. In addition, the Kirk was eager to distance itself from any practice that represented "Popery". On a royal visit to Edinburgh in 1617 (after succeeding to the English throne in 1603) the king recommended adding the following practices to the Scottish church: kneeling during receipt of the Holy Communion, celebrating Christmas and Easter as religious festivals, new communicants confirmed by bishops, not ministers, and private baptism and communion permitted in the cases of grave illness. These became known as the "Five Articles", which a General Assembly in November 1617 rejected. James was infuriated and at a later Assembly, despite strong opposition, a majority passed the "Five Articles". Many ministers, however, refused to put them into practice and many of them were deprived of their livings. James was still livid and banned any future General Assemblies.

Charles I continued where his father, left off. In 1636 the king issued a Code of Canons intended to bring the Scottish Church into similar practices of the Anglican Church. The codes established a royal supremacy over ecclesiastical matters, limited ministers to preaching in only one parish and did not include church sessions, presbyteries, or General Assemblies. What really put the Scots into an uproar was the introduction of a new Book of Common Prayer. The opposition was so violent that there was rioting in the streets. The people appointed four "Tables" or committees of noblemen, lairds, burgesses, and ministers to appeal to the Privy Council for the king to dispose of the new and much hated liturgy. The king refused and threatened all dissidents with charges of treason. The Tables responded by creating, signing, and distributing a "National Covenant". The National Covenant in essence rejected any practices, beliefs or ideology rooted in Catholicism and to supported solely Presbyterianism. It also called for "free parliaments and assemblies" (p. 424). The first copy of the National Covenant was signed in Greyfriars Church on February 28, 1638. The National Covenant was primarily a manifesto in opposition to Charles I and his high-handed use of royal prerogative. Discourse between the Tables and the king's commissioner quickly spiraled out of control and plunged Scotland into a state of civil war. This rebellion in Scotland, known as The Bishops' Wars, perpetuated an even worse situation: civil war in England. A Royalist faction splintered off from the Covenanters to assist Charles I against Cromwell's and the Covenanters' armies. The Royalist did not succeed and Charles I was deposed and executed by Cromwell's parliament in 1649.

Scotland was actually shocked by the execution of their king. It was one thing for England to execute her king, but Charles I was also Scotland's king. In 1651, Charles' son Charles succeeded him as Charles II, King of Scotland, but the Kirk required him take an oath to uphold the National Covenant and the Solemn League and Covenant (an agreement the Covenanters reached with Cromwell during the civil war that promised England would unify its church with Scotland's, which was never honored on the English's side). From Scotland Charles II hoped to retake England from Cromwell, but his endeavor failed and he fled to the continent. He returned, though, in 1660 as King of England, Ireland, and Scotland after the fall of the Commonwealth. He arrived full of vengeance and with plans of revenge; not just for the English rebels who executed his father, but for the Scots who made him beg for his Scottish crown and coerced him into taking oaths in which he did not believe.

Charles II was just as determined as his father and grandfather before him to squash the idea of a Presbyterian church in Scotland. On March 28, 1661 the Scottish parliament passed a

sweeping Rescissory Act which annulled every law that had been passed by all its predecessors since 1633…. It quashed the constitutional settlement of 1639-41, restored the royal prerogatives and gave the king sole power to call and dissolve parliaments and to name his councillors and judges. The Covenants were declared illegal. Office-bearers had to swear an oath of allegiance to the new order. Noblemen got back their heritable jurisdictions, ended by Cromwell, and the gentry their rights of patronage in the kirks, lost under the Covenant. For good measure, Charles II was voted a large annuity…. Power had been transferred firmly back to the crown and Scotland would increasingly be controlled from London (pg 476-478).

Many ministers refused to take the require oath and they were deprived of their livings. Many of the Scots refused to attend worship services, even when they were fined. Ousted ministers began to preach in secret and congregations flood to here them. These meetings became known as conventicles and they were quickly outlawed. The king's policy was destined to do nothing but alienate and infuriate the Scots. It is no surprise that rebellion, again, arose in Scotland. The Covenanters experienced some success, but in the long run the king prevailed in repressing the rebellion, but what followed were the bloodies 20 years the Covenanter's history.

The repression of the Presbyterians waned under Charles II and James VII of Scotland, II of England during the 1680's and ceased altogether after the Glorious Revolution. King William was convinced by a close advisor that the Scottish Presbyterians were the lesser of two evils, since the Scottish Episcopalians had remained so loyal to James VII, II (and later his descendants). King William left the decision to the Scottish parliament. In June 1690 the parliament passed an act which would restore Presbyterian governance, doctrine, and discipline to the Church of Scotland. Within another month parliament abolished lay patronage and repealed the Act of Supremacy. The Church was also charged with purging out of office those ministers who were found to be "insufficient, negligent, scandalous, and erroneous" (pg. 521). The Church also enforced ministers taking the oath of allegiance to William and Mary. Those who refused were deprived of their livings. At this point in 1690, the Scottish Church more closely resembled the Presbyterian model scholars have come to associate with Scotland.

Robert Pollok

Robert Pollok is the seventh child to John Pollok and Margret Gemmell. He was born October 19, 1798 at North Moorhouse, Eaglesham, Renfrewshire, Scotland. Pollok attended the University of Glasgow beginning in November 1817 where he studied theology. In 1827 he became qualified and licensed to preach within the Church of Scotland. He only preached once in his lifetime, at the chapel of Dr. John Brown on Rose Street in Edinburgh.

Pollok is most known for The Course of Time, an epic poem which chronicled the religious history of man. The poem contained 10 books and was published by Blackwood in 1827; the first edition old over 12,000 copies. Pollok suffered from ill health and died on September 15, 1827, shortly after The Course of Time was published. His poem gained popularly and his Tales of the Covenanters was collaborated and published posthumously. Two known autobiographies have been published regarding Pollok life, one by his brother, David Pollok, and another by James Scott. Scott's work was published in the United States due to a generally high curiosity regarding Pollok. The Course of Time became very popular in the U.S. and the fervor to know more of him convinced Scott to complete his version of Pollok's autobiography, not withstanding that David Pollok's had published in 1846.

Tales of the Covenanters

This edition of Tales of the Covenanters by Robert Pollok was published by Oliphant Anderson & Ferrier and printed by Morrison and Gibb in 1850. This publisher house had two locations in both Edinburgh and London and the printer one in Edinburgh. Judging on observation alone, Oliphant Anderson & Ferrier book sellers was in the business of printing and publishing religious tracks and texts. The current owner acquired this book in August 2006 from the book fair during the Edinburgh Fringe Festival for the cost of £9.

Title Page

This volume does contain a title page. The title page, of course, includes the title, the author the edition, and the publisher name and location. On the verso side of the title page there is a list of Pollok's tales indicating that they were available for purchase individually from Oliphant Anderson & Ferrier.

Incipit and explicit

Since this book was printed in 1850, it does not contain either and incipit or an explicit.

Colophon Size and format

This volume does not contain a colophon. The book is 17.5 cm X 11.5 cm. The book is in size comparable to the size of a modern mass paperback book. The book is in folio format

Collation and Paper

The collation of the book is, like most other books, sown together in signatures. There are signatures "A" through "S" each consisting for four folios. In order to help the printer during binding a letter starting with "A" was assigned to each signature so that the book could be bound in the proper order. The "signature" is located every eight sheets (or four folios) at the bottom right-hand of the page. The book is created out of paper rather than parchment. The paper has discolored over time, but it is not brittle.

Page layout

Pages are single column, single spaced, tabbed, and justify aligned. Chapter headings are aligned to the centered of the page. Page numbers are located in the in the upper right-hand (recto) or upper left-hand (verso) on the page. The page headers are also centered aligned.

Foliation/pagination

The book has 290 pages. The actual text of the book begins on page five which is preceded by, the title page and an illustration page. There are two flyleaves: one in front and one in the back. The book is divided into the three "tales" each has its own "title page" and chapter heading scheme. The back of the book also contains advertisements for a similar type of books published by the same printer.

Printer's Device and Type

It is not known what type of device Oliphant Anderson & Ferrier used to produce this book. The book's type appears very closely related today's modern Times New Roman. The book different types of case type includes all caps, small caps, and lower case. The quotations at the beginning of each chapter uses a smaller type of font from the rest of the chapter's text. There are not use of italics in the text, but the advertisements at the back of the book incorporate italics. The text "New Edition" on the title page uses an Old English sort of type set.

Color Printing

This volume does not including color print in regards to the text of the book. The illustrations present on the binding however contain an array of colors such as yellow, red, and green.

Rubrication

Chapter headings could be considered rubication for this book. The book is broken into three sections and each section is then spilt by chapters. The chapter headings are numbers consecutively starting with the Roman numeral for the number 1 and restarts with each section (i.e. sections 1, 2, and 3 each have a "Chapter I"). There are also breaks within the chapters which are represented by a horizontal line.

Decoration

There is no decoration within the page borders of this text.

Illumination/Painting

The text of this book does not include either painting or illumination, the book does, however, contain several illustrations, such as the one below. There are seven illustrations. Six of which pertain to the text. One illustration at the end of the book belongs to an advertisement for another book published by the same company. There is some slight illumination and/or decoration on the binding and that will be covered below.

Binding

The book still had its original hardcover--pasteboard covered with dark red paper binding from the 1850 publication. The binding is in excellent condition. The title of the book and the Covenanter standard was gold leaf engraved onto the front over. The spine and left-hand border of the front of the book is covered with a floral design featuring various colors, such as red, orange, yellow, and green. The corners and the top and bottom of the spine are beginning to fray. Images of the binding are shown below.

Endleaves and flyleaves

This book contains a blank two flyleaves on in the front and one in the back. The book also contains a front and a back paste down.

Summary

The moment I saw this book on display at the Edinburgh Festival book fair, I had to have it. I thought instantly, "books just aren't made this way any more". I did not mean that books today are made so incredibly cheaply, though I can name a few of my friends who can go on a rant for hours about how easily pages in books tear or how bindings give way too quickly. I meant that we often do not see books made today with this sort of craftsmanship. The floral decorations and the gold leaf engravings make this book one of a kind.

References

(2010). Covenanter. In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 11, 2010, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://search.eb.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/eb/article-9026651.

(2010). National Covenant. In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 11, 2010, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://search.eb.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/eb/article-9054972.

(2010). Robert Pollok. Gazetter for Scotland . Retrieved April 11, 2010 from http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/people/famousfirst605.html.

Kirk, J. (1984). Reformation and Revolution: Kirk and Crown, 1560-1690. History Today, 34(10), p. 14-21.

Maclean, F. (1993). Scotland: A Concise History. London, UK: Thames and Hudson.

Magnusson, M. (2000). Scotland: The Story of a Nation. New York, NY: Atlantic Monthly Press.

Scott, J. (1848). The Life, Letters and Remains of the Rev. Robert Pollok, A.M.. New York, NY: Robert Carter. Accessed online through the Google Book Project.

Significant Scots: Robert Pollok. Retrieved April 11, 2010 from http://www.electricscotland.com/history/other/pollok_robert.htm.